Parenting Styles Authoritarian, Authoritative,...

With over three hundred million Americans and over six billion people worldwide parenting skills are essential to maintain a healthy society. Parenting involves many aspects and requires many skills. It is a time to nurture, instruct, and correct in order to develop fundamental skills children will need to be mature, responsible, and contributing adults to a society. There are four commonly identified parenting styles; authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved parenting. Of the four parenting styles, two remain on opposite ends of the parenting spectrum. These two styles; authoritarian, and permissive both have deleterious results that are often visible throughout different developmental stages, such as rebellious†¦show more content†¦Unlike the authoritarian style of parenting, the permissive style does not place such strong emphasis on adherence to manners. Manners may be encouraged but are not viewed as a sign of a child’s obedience. Not holding the door for the next person or giving up a seat to an elderly person is seldom noticed or mentioned by the parent. Permissive parents allow and often even encourage casual verbiage rather than formal conversations with their child. Permissive parents fail to enforce some of the simplest expressions of manners. Correction and punishment is seldom given to a child for lack of manners. Children are commonly faced with setting their own boundaries, and making their own decisions according to their beliefs of what is right and wrong. From infancy to adult, people are making decisions all day long. How long to study for the upcoming test? What sport to play? What college to attend? As choices are made, often goals are set to ensure maximum potential are achieved. This process of decision-making and goal setting is overbearing shadowed by the authoritarian style of parenting. Children rarely have an opportunity for open dialogue when and goals are made. As children strive to achie ve the targeted goals set by their parents, they are well aware that nothing less than perfect is acceptable. Failure to achieve goals results in parental disapproval and reprimand. In some circumstances, parents withdraw support as a means of rebuke. This support mayShow MoreRelatedParenting Styles, Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive And Uninvolved981 Words   |  4 PagesParenting style has a big impact on how children develop into adults, and there are important implications for their future success. (Ronald Riggio, 2014) How a parent treated their child will follow the child for the rest of its life. Different parenting styles and their punishments that follow can affect the child mentally (psychological disorders) and physically (obesity). While we all know some forms of punishment is uncalled for such as persistence spanking is not typically just punishment butRead MoreParenting Styles : Authoritarian, Permissive, Uninvolved, And Authoritative982 Words   |  4 PagesG ood parenting is essential for a child’s educational and behavioral success and is a stressed trait throughout the world; however, in different cultures, good parenting can be defined and measured in many contrasting ways. In the United States, parenting and discipline methods have become controversial in the past fifty years, and the methods for raising children have drastically changed in some households. According to psychologist Diana Baumrind, there are four different parenting styles: authoritarianRead MoreDifferent Parenting Styles, Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, And Uninvolved Essay1538 Words   |  7 PagesThis essay explores the four different types of parenting styles, authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. The exploration of each parenting style is examined, and the outcomes of each parenting style for the child is learned. Each parenting style has positives and negatives, but overall this essay informs the reader about which parenting style is best linked to success in their child’s education. Information for this essay has been gathered from three sources, the sources beingRead MoreParenting Styles And Its Effect On Children Essay1382 Words   |  6 Pagesthat parenting styles and their effectiveness vary. In research, parenting styles have been split into four categories the authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and the uninv olved. Within these categories, researches have attempted to map the effectiveness of parenting styles and the positive and negative outcomes of each. Despite the eclectic and commonly erratic nature of family structures, practices, and norms, we can start to break apart the authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolvedRead MoreAnalysis of Differing Parenting Styles796 Words   |  3 Pagesthree main styles of parenting widely accepted in the field of Psychology, which are authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. A fourth style, uninvolved/neglectful, is also being more widely recognized. The likes of Erickson and Baumrind have long since contributed to research efforts on the effects of parenting styles on child development. With numerous factors influencing both the parents and the child’s response to the parenting style is can be difficult to assess the best style for an optimalRead MoreParenting Styles Have Impact On Society1096 Words   |  5 PagesP arenting styles have had an impact on society for centuries. The way caregivers bring up the children they are responsible for, paves the way to their future and personality. Children are continuously interpreting the things that their caregivers do. Including messages, body language, conversations, actions and the different styles of parenting. Various parenting styles continue to reflect the different patterns in parental behaviours. These are influenced in their family environments in which bothRead MoreParenting Styles And Styles Of Parenting1391 Words   |  6 Pages Parenting Styles My term paper will discuss the 4 Styles of Parenting, including; the styles of parenting that we as single parents and couple parents may identify with. My paper will also discuss how each parenting styles impacts our children, if it works and the style of parenting that’s most effective. Authoritative Parenting Style The Authoritative Style of Parenting, children are expected to follow the rules and guidelines that a parent with this style of parenting has put into place. ThisRead MoreDiana Baumrind s Effect Of Parenting Styles On Children Essay1312 Words   |  6 PagesDiana Baumrind’s effect of parenting styles on children Baumrind was born into a Jewish community in the New York’s Jewish enclaves. She was the first two daughters of Hyman and Mollie Blumberg. Diana, the eldest in an extended family of female cousins, inherited the role of eldest son, which allowed her to participate in serious conversations about philosophy, ethics, literature, and politics. She completed her B.A. in Psychology and Philosophy at Hunter College in 1948, and her M.A. and Ph.D. inRead MoreChild Development Is An Inevitable Process For All Children1033 Words   |  5 Pagessame time. Child development is contingent on (but not solely) the way in which a parent decides to raise his/her child. A parent can decide to raise a child using one of the following parenting style techniques: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive-indulgent and permissive-uninvolved. With the four parenting style techniques aforementioned, a parent has the power to impact the process of child development. Child development is an inevitable process for all children. A â€Å"successful† child is determinedRead MoreEssay on An Effective Parenting Style993 Words   |  4 PagesWikipedia, â€Å"Parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use in their child rearing.† As parents use the technique to raise their children, they also shaped their value and personality. â€Å"Parenting style considers the balance between two aspects of parenting, namely, control, and warmth† (Ginsburg, Durbin, Garcias-Espana, Kalicka, and Winston, p. 1041). The most commonly heard parenting styles are authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. Authoritative

A Brief Note On Criminology And Criminal Justice Essay

1. Scholars in criminology and criminal justice have suggested the following: â€Å"Any criminology worthy of its name should contain a comparative dimension. The contents of cultural meaning that are loaded into a subject are too variable for it to be otherwise.† Explain this statement. Use examples in the explanation. Criminology and criminal justice are multidimensional studies that require numerous perspectives in order to create well-rounded findings. Crime is largely intertwined with culture. In order to understand why crime and more specifically, why certain crimes occur in a region, one must understand the cultural dimensions at play. Additionally, one cannot analyze how crime should be dealt with applying only one culture’s model for criminal justice. Simply put, different countries have different criminal justice systems. It would be unconscious to analyze the methods of adjudicating crime without factoring in the widely diverse cultural and political dimensions associated with each region or country and their crime. No one single criminal justice system is entirely flawless. Therefore it is dangerous to approach criminal justice with an ethnocentric approach. ADD EXAMPLES. 2. To what extent can one rely on crime data from other nations? How can one evaluate this data in relation to the nature and prevalence of crime? The reliability and credibility of other nation’s crime data largely depend on the developmental status and the political stability of the state.Show MoreRelatedEssay about Decision Making by Criminals3039 Words   |  13 PagesDecision Making by Criminals The issue of whether decision making by criminals is a rational process is a heated topic of discussion when one asserts that crime is the role of choice. Before the classical school of criminology, crime was thought to be the product of the paranormal occurrence of demons, witches, ghouls, and other creatures. The time prior to the classical school of criminology, called the preclassical era, is divided in two parts. Before the time of state intervention into privateRead MoreHas Criminology Been Gender Blinded Essay2257 Words   |  10 PagesCriminology has been ‘Gender-blind rather than ‘Gender neutral. Discuss It has been argued that the gaze of criminology has been primarily focused on male offenders, Cain (1989) argues that criminology is in fact incapable of speaking in gender neutral terms (cited in Walklate 2001: 19). A reason for this includes that history has been prepared to offer universal explanations of crime achieved by the study of the male offender. Feminists such as (Naffine 1997: 18) believe that criminology hasRead MoreDeterrence and Rational Choice Theory of Crime3085 Words   |  13 PagesThe issue of whether decision making by criminals is a rational process is a heated topic of discussion when one asserts that crime is the role of choice. Before the classical school of criminology, crime was thought to be the product of the paranormal occurrence of demons, witches, ghouls, and other creatures. The time prior to the classical school of criminology, called the preclassical era, is divided in two parts. Before the time of state intervention into private matters, each individual dealtRead MorePsychopathy And Social Learning Theory And The Copycat Effect1224 Words   |  5 Pagesand aggressive than are those of other criminal†. We learned that it is difficult to get reasons that would help determine which offenders are mentally ill. Adler, Mueller, Laufer (2013) stated that, â€Å"Some psychologists consider psychopat hy to be an artificial label for an antisocial personality (pg. 104). As we learned many criminals are labeled and it seems interesting to see that psychopaths are very hard to label. In our reading it showed that any criminal that is not classified is a psychopathRead MoreEssay about Deviance: Construction, Definition, Benefits and Influence1818 Words   |  8 PagesDeviance is a very important concept in both criminology and sociology. It deals with society as well as the law. In this paper I will answer the question of what exactly is deviance and how is it constructed? Who gets to define what deviance is? Who benefits from defining it in a certain way and how does this process influence the legal system? According to our lecture notes, â€Å"A crime is any act which has been legally prohibited by the state such that, if done, it renders the actor liable toRead MoreCrimes Against Children1739 Words   |  7 Pages  Finally, the last section will summarize and conclude the important aspects of crimes against children investigation strategies as they relate to successful outcomes and prosecution. The significance of this paper is that it contributes to the criminal justice system by critically reviewing investigative strategies and techniques as they relate to their mission of successful outcomes in crimes against children cases.   This paper is written for colleagues and clerisy who have a professional or academicRead MoreThe View That Crime Is Socially Constructed Essay2274 Words   |  10 Pagesan illegal act either against law, collective wellbeing, or even political wellbeing (Bradley Walters, 2011). It then overall deems as a kind of harmful behavior towards certain values or norms of the society it committed in. It is interesting to note that Becker (from labelling theory) claimed by saying no action in itself crime or deviant, it depends upon who commits it, who sees it, and what action is taken about it (Becker, 1991). So it is to underline that crime is really a social creationRead MoreEssay on The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison12486 Words   |  50 PagesUniversity or the same criminal behavior, the poor are more likely to be arrested; if arrested, they are more likely to be charged; if charged, more likely to be convicted; if convicted, more likely to be sentenced to prison; and if sentenced, more likely to be given longer prison terms than members of the middle and upper classes.1 In other words, the image of the criminal population one sees in our nation’s jails and prisons is distorted by the shape of the criminal justice system itself. It is theRead MoreRole of Criminology in Determining the Emerging Patterns of Corporate Crime3821 Words   |  15 PagesHow Criminology has sought to explain Corporate Crime? Abstract Throughout the past years, there has been a growing propensity in criminology to explain emerging patterns of corporate crime within the United States by referring solely to different things like dysfunctional families or dysfunctional persons. Other criminologists have really interrogated these latter methods as separating individuals and crime from the social organizations that cover them. This paper will discuss how criminologyRead MoreConflict Theory And Merton s Anomie Theory2781 Words   |  12 Pagesto assume that roughly 34% of women would likely self-report accepting payment for sex. Another study conducted in Chicago estimated that prostitutes â€Å"are officially arrested only once per 450 tricks, with johns arrested even less frequently,† and notes that roughly ten percent of those arrests result in a prison sentence (Levitt, Venkatesh; McGough). This data shows that, while we can estimate the actual extent of prostitution in the United States, the generalizabili ty of the data available is incredibly

Essay on Haiti - 1629 Words

Haiti was once the first black independent republic in the world and the richest island in the Caribbean. Today Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere and one of the poorest countries in the world. What could have happened to Haiti in almost two hundred years of history? The country experienced repeated civil war and foreign intervention. Haiti is not isolated from the international world. Thus, it was not out of concern for ordinary Haitians that the United States intervened in Haiti. It was out of concern for profit and stability within the United States own backyard. The purpose of this paper is to show the negative aspect that the United States had played in the government of Haiti. The situation in Haiti was†¦show more content†¦Over one thousand miles of roads and two hundred bridges were built. The occupiers reconstructed the French irrigation system that Haiti had, new wharves and acetylene lighthouses were built. Theaters and parks were restored or built from the ground up. The public health systems were enlarged; hospitals and clinics were set up across the country. Even American doctors came to train Haitian doctors, and some Haitian doctors went to the U.S. to study (Thomas Smith: 291, video). These are the only things that Haiti benefited from this intervention. Another achievement made during this transition was that the Marines from the US established reformation of the Haitian army. They replaced it by a National Police Force (La Garde dHaiti) that dominated Haitian politics ever since. This army had been conceived as a nonpartisan peacekeeping force that would help ensure the right kind of political stability. During the occupation it did so. Afterward, however the existence of such a force ended by helping political strongmen stay in power. The Haitian Garde was especially created to fight against other Haitians. It received its baptism of fire in combat against its countrymen. And the Garde, like the army it was to sire, has indeed never fought anyone but Haitians. Its most important campaign was its participation alongside the Marines in the war against the peasant nationalists led by Charlemagne Peralte and Benoit Battraville, when Marines and Garde togetherShow MoreRelatedHaiti : A Country Of Haiti2156 Words   |  9 PagesHaiti is considered one of the poorest countries in the western hemisphere, with more than 60% of its population living in poverty. The long history of political and economic instability along with Haiti’s growing susceptibility to natural disasters has negatively impacted the long-term sustainable development of the small island. Due to the conditions of Haiti and stark division between the rich and poor, nearly half of the population lack access to education, health and economic reso urces necessaryRead MoreCulture of Haiti1296 Words   |  6 PagesThe Culture of Haiti Carrie St. Jean Axia College of University of Phoenix What does the average American really know about the country, Haiti? Is the lifestyle all black magic, spells, and sà ©ances? Is this media portrayal of Voodoo the only way of life and what is Voodoo, any way? These questions come to mind when someone wants to know the truth about Haitian culture and life in Haiti. Haitian culture consists of deep rooted religious beliefs, music, and Haitian cuisineRead MoreEconomics of Haiti2342 Words   |  10 PagesThe economics of Haiti has deceased in the last 4 years after the devastating earthquake that struck it 4 years ago. The Haiti economy has become very poor and one of the poorest country in the south, Central America and Caribbean region making it ranked 24 out of 29 countries in this area and its overall score is below average. Haiti’s economic freedom is 48.1 making it economy the 151st freest country while in the last several years Declines in the management of government spending, freedom fromRead MoreThe Lost Country : Haiti1572 Words   |  7 PagesThe Lost Country: Haiti The Caribbean country, Haiti, is known to be one of the poorest countries in the western hemisphere. Despite the country’s wealth in natural resources, the people of Haiti have been plagued by decades of unstable government, corrupt leaders, and debilitating natural disasters. The small country was once known to be the wealthiest country in the West Indies. Dominated by its European oppressor, France, Haiti thrived in production during the slaving era. Haiti became globallyRead MoreThe Hardship of Haiti Essay1755 Words   |  8 PagesHaiti is a beautiful Caribbean country that has had more than its fair share of hardship. A culture of strength and perseverance is evident from the moment one arrives and it only feels stronger the further one travels from Port au Prince. The people are of African descent, with a strong French influence creating a uniquely mixed culture that is rare in the western hemisphere. The business climate is such that there are very few foreign busine sses or joint ventures in Haiti and although thereRead MoreHaiti And The Dominican Republic Essay1581 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The caribbean is where a small island, contains two countries within its borders and a long history of conflict. Haiti and the Dominican Republic are two different country, with completely different cultures, from religion, to the food they eat, Two countries, with two different, yet correlating stories. A story of conflict is what unites these two countries. This paper will attempt to analyse that story, and answer how this small island came to be divided into two countries, and inhabitedRead MoreThe Caribbean Country of Haiti1499 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction to Haiti Haiti is a Caribbean country. It occupies the western third of the island of Hispaniola. It is the third largest Caribbean nation with a population of 10.4 million which makes it the most populous full-member state of the Caribbean community. Haiti is also the poorest country in the Americas as measured by the human development index. Haiti is so poor that people used to work as restavecs(unpaid household servant).half of the children in Haiti are unvaccinated.2%of theRead MoreA Country Of Chaos : Haiti1635 Words   |  7 PagesA Country in Chaos: Haiti Haiti is the poorest county in the Western Hemisphere, but it once was a very wealthy nation. Haiti shares the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean with the Dominican Republic. They are blessed with beautiful mountains and beaches, copper, gold, and oil. At one point, Haiti was more wealthy than the British colonies that were located in the Caribbean. Haiti is rich with natural resources, so why is Haiti the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere? They are the poorestRead MoreSpeech: History of Haiti1721 Words   |  7 PagesTitle: The history of Haiti Purpose: To understand how Haiti became what it is and all the trials it has endured Thesis: In order to explain Haiti’s history I will discuss its location, when and how it became independent and Haiti today and also its early history Intro: Attention Getter: Who here has heard of the horrible plight of Haiti? Haiti has been through constant suffering everyday due to economic difficulty, lack of food, lack of clean water, hurricanes, and possibly everythingRead MoreResearch on Haiti Essay1156 Words   |  5 PagesHAITI: IT’S PAST AND PRESENT Haiti is the second largest Caribbean Island. It occupies a third of the western part of the island it shares with the Dominican Republic. Haiti is also made up of several islands that surround the main territory. The capital is Port-au-Prince. It rains between November and March in the North of the island and between May and October in the South. â€Å"Once covered by forest, the country has been heavily logged for wood and fuel and to clear land for farming, and is

Adlerian, Cognitive Behavioral, and Solution Focused Brief...

Adlerian, Cognitive Behavioral, and Solution Focused Brief Therapy are three major theories that are used today. All three theories have things that make them similar as well as different. Adlerian Theory, founded by Alfred Adler, is stated as a social psychology. The theory is relatively simple, and it puts the responsibility for behavior and success solely on the person. (Seligman amp; Reichenberg) Adlerian pays considerable attention to social context, family dynamics, and child rearing. This approach is phenomenological, empowering, and oriented towards both present and future. There were two elements of the Adlerian Theory as to why it was not really accepted: (1) If humans can be simply described and understood, I may not be as†¦show more content†¦This final phase also enables people to solidify the gains they have made and move forward with their lives in healthier and more fulfilling ways. The clinician and client determine when the client is ready to complete treat ment and agree on follow-up procedures to make sure clients stay focused and continue positive growth. I feel that this therapy could be used on anyone, from a child experiencing issues to an adult with difficulties in their life. A child could be experiencing a horrible ordeal with a step-parent, a rocky relationship with the child’s parents arguing or fighting all the time, or even a child watching their parents go through a divorce. All of these examples could stay with a child up until adulthood, and the clinician would have to dig deep in the past to see where the issues stemmed from. I like this therapy a lot because I feel that people do have some underlying issues that they are battling with from growing up or in the past that are causing them to feel the way they are today. The next theory is Cognitive Behavioral approach. Cognitive Therapy has grown to become one of the most empirically validated approaches to counseling and psychotherapy. Albert Ellis established the foundations of cognitive therapy, using logic to dispute irrational beliefs. According to Seligman and Reichenberg, cognitive therapy focuses on the meaning that people giveShow MoreRelated Comparing Adlerian Therapy, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, and Solution Focused Brief Therapy3619 Words   |  15 Pagesas a school counselor. Modern day counseling is equipped with a wide variety of therapies, techniques and approaches. The purpose of this essay is to compare and contrast three approaches of therapy. Also in this essay the views of the person and the Therapeutic process will be discussed. The three models that are going to be compared are Adlerian, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), and Solution Focused Brief therapy (SFBT). This essay is going to highlight the similarities and differences of theRead MoreCounseling Theories and Use in School Setting1717 Words   |  7 Pagescounselors to effectively help the special populations on their campus. This paper will explore t he key concepts, therapeutic process and applications of Adlerian Theory, Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Solution Focused Brief Therapy. These therapies will also be evaluated as to their appropriateness with school-aged and adolescent children. Adlerian Theory Key Concepts Alfred Adler is known worldwide as a philosopher and psychiatrist. He based his theories from his personal experience as a childRead MoreTheories2900 Words   |  12 PagesTheories Adlerian, Cognitive Behavioral and Solution-Focused Brief Therapy are three major theories that are used extensively in the counseling world. Some counselors use each as a single treatment approach while others chose to blend things from two or more together. The theory or approach that is chosen by a counselor must be one that they are knowledgeable in and feel comfortable with. It’s also important to remember that not every approach will fit every client. Adlerian Theory KeyRead MoreIndividual Counseling Theories and Approaches Essay2697 Words   |  11 Pageswith the Adlerian Theory first followed by Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. At the end we will finish with Solution Focused Brief Theory. All three theories have their strengths and limitations but can be and usually are combined or used together to some extent to better serve the client. One theory might examine the client’s background and underlying cause for the complaints, while the other might focus on the present and how to solve the problems in a shorter period of time. Adlerian Theory KeyRead MorePsychology : Cognitive Behavioral Therapy1823 Words   |  8 Pagesthe process that has been created by Adlerian and used for many years. It seems to be a very friendly client approach. I believe that if it was more abrasive, there wouldn’t be many goals or life changes within the client. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Key Concepts Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is based on the idea that our thoughts cause our feelings and behaviors, not external things, like people, situations, and events. Beck called it cognitive therapy because of the importance it places onRead MoreIntegrated Approach For Counseling And Counseling1653 Words   |  7 PagesIntegrated approach to counseling is when you combined theories to cover the clients’ feelings, cognitive patterns, and behavior (Corey, Theory and Practice of Counseling and Pschotherapy 8e, 2009). Each theory focuses one of these key components of a client but in counseling you need to focus on each of these to fully help a client. The key to integrative counseling is to have multiple theories function in harmony (Corey, Theory and Practice of Counseling and Pschotherapy 8e, 2009). PsychotherapyRead MoreEvidence-Based Counseling Practice Essay1164 Words   |  5 Pagesthirteen-year-old boy with ADHD, behavior, and academic challenges to make better choices. Approaches implemented included a reality therapy foundation with solution-focused brief therapy interventions to help Carlos recognize that he can be in control and accept responsibility for his actions. Through the modalities of choice theory, reality therapy, and solution-focused brief therapy, I hoped to empower Carlos as he moved into the last semester of eighth grade and transitioned into his freshman year. AnalysisRead MoreJuxtaposition Of Adlerian Therapy And Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Essay2157 Words   |  9 PagesJuxtaposition of Adlerian Therapy and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is widely known and utilized in the psychological field; however, Adlerian therapy, also known as individual psychology, is not universally known yet has roots that appear in CBT. In fact, Albert Ellis, founder of CBT, has acknowledged that Alfred Adler, founder of individual psychology, was one of the earliest therapists to emphasize the importance of understanding people’s thoughts, their observationsRead MorePersonal Experience Receiving Therapeutic Counseling889 Words   |  4 Pagesmany years by many different schools of thought. Much of my career prior to working as a case coordinator in the Wisconsin Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, was at Job Corps working with disadvantaged youth. Training for staff at Job Corps focused on motivating youth and particularly on youth at risk, so there was an element that took from counseling theory within that training. For example, one training and philosophy at Job Corps was described with the following terms: rigor + relevance +Read MoreCareer And Personal Experience Receiving Therapeutic Counseling878 Words   |  4 Pagesmany years by many different schools of thought. Much of my career prior to working as a case coordinator in the Wisconsin Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, was at Job Corps working with disadvantaged youth. Training for staff at Job Corps focused on motivating youth and particularly on youth at risk, so there was an element that took from counseling theory within that training. For example, one training and philosophy at Job Corps was described with the following terms: rigor + relevance +

Winning the Fight against Super Bugs Free Essays

The term ‘antibiotics’ refers to substances that kill bacteria or prevent their growth. Antibiotics are natural substances that are released by bacteria and fungi into their environment to fight other organisms. The use of antibiotics by organisms therefore represents chemical warfare on a microscopic scale. We will write a custom essay sample on Winning the Fight against Super Bugs or any similar topic only for you Order Now The activity of antibiotics was discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928 when he observed that colonies of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus could be destroyed by the mould Penicillium notatum. The significance of the discovery was however not realized at that time, and it was only in the 1940s when Howard Florey and Ernst Chain isolated the active ingredient and developed the substance in its powdery form, that it was realized that penicillin and other antibiotics could be used as very effective medicines to kill certain types of disease-causing bacteria within the human body. Bacterial infections can be fatal, especially for young children and babies who do not have adequate immunity. Labeled as the ‘wonder drug,’ the use of antibiotics to combat bacterial infections resulted in a significant decrease in the deaths due infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and pneumonia. Antibiotics are not only used to used to treat human ailments but also bacterial infections in plants and animals. After having been effectively used for almost half a century, a new challenge loomed up in front of humankind in the form of bacteria that turned resistant to antibiotics. These bacteria are known as the ‘superbugs’. Natural antibiotics have probably existed as long as microorganisms have. Certain types of bacteria have therefore undergone adaptation and mutation to overcome the action of antibiotics. These bacteria have learnt to deal with practically all types of antibiotics that are available. They pose a serious problem in the form of diseases that cannot be treated with any medicines. As antibiotics treatment of bacterial infections continues, the number and variety of super bugs are bound to increase. It could eventually come to a pass when bacterial infections become as fatal as they were in the days before the discovery of antibiotics. This could lead to a depicted scenario in which the very existence of humankind could be threatened. There is, however, good news. A research led by Dr Adrian Lloyd of the University of Warwick’s Department of Biological Sciences has succeeded in unraveling how the super bug Streptococcus pneumoniae develops its penicillin immunity (University of Warwick, 2008). This finding opens up many new avenues of disrupting the process of development of resistance to antibiotics by the Streptococcus pneumoniae specifically and other super bugs in general. This could enable scientists to restore penicillin as a weapon against these bacteria, as well as restore the efficacy of other types of antibiotics against their respective bacteria. Essentially the study found that a protein called the MurM was at the root of the development of resistance to antibiotics by the bacteria. Very simply put, Penicillin normally kills off the S. pneumoniae by inhibiting the formation of Peptidoglycan an essential component of the bacterial cell wall which protects the otherwise fragile bacterial cell. When Peptidoglycan is not produced, the protective cell wall of the bacteria is not formed leading to the death of the organism. It had been observed that the protein MurM was linked to changes in the chemical makeup of the Peptidoglycan that was found in penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. The protein MurM has been found to lead to the formation of particular structures known as the ‘dipeptide bridges’ in the peptidoglycan resulting in the formation of a bacterial cell wall that is resistant to penicillin. â€Å"The Warwick team were able to replicate the activity of MurM in a test tube, allowing them to define the chemistry of the MurM reaction in detail and understand every key step of how Streptococcus pneumoniae deploys MurM to gain this resistance. † (University of Warwick, 2008). This will enable the Warwick team and any other pharmaceutical researchers to zero in on MurM reaction in the Streptococcus pneumoniae and develop drugs to disrupt the process of development of resistance to penicillin. The result could be designer penicillin antibiotics to be deployed effectively against penicillin resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Since the same mechanism works in the development of resistance to antibiotics in other bacteria such as MRSA, the findings of the Warwick University research could open up more fronts in the fight against antibiotic resistant bacteria. Moreover, the researchers have been able to readily reproduce every stage of formation of the peptidoglycan required by the Streptococcus pneumoniae to build up its penicillin-resistant cell wall. This provides pharmaceutical companies different levels at which to attack the process of development of antibiotic resistance that could lead to the invention of an array of modified penicillin for penicillin resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. The significance of the new findings can be gauged from the fact that Streptococcus pneumonia causes 5 million fatalities worldwide in children. In the United States, it is the cause of infection in 1 million elderly out of which 7% end in fatalities. In every day life the finding can be related to arming a conventional missile with a nuclear warhead. The enemy in this case are the bacteria, and the war is not for the annihilation for the survival of humanity. References -01 University of Warwick (2008, March 15). How Antibiotic Resistant Bugs Became Resistant To Penicillin, And How Penicillin Could Work Again. ScienceDaily. Retrieved January 1, 2003, from http://www. sciencedaily. com ¬ /releases/2008/03/080312100041. htm How to cite Winning the Fight against Super Bugs, Papers

Science and Professional Practice and Psychology

Questions: 1. Identify and describe one ethical issue that the authors would have considered when planning this research. 2. Outline how this issue may have been addressed to the satisfaction of a Human Research Ethics Committee what would the researchers have had to do in order to avoid this ethical issue? Answers: (1). One of the ethical issues that would have been considered by Whitworth, Loftus, Skinner, Gasson, Barker, Bucks, Thomas (2013) when planning their research is the distinctive vulnerability of the persons with mental illness, intellectual disability, and cognitive impairment as research participants such as distress and discomfort. In the journal, the authors undertook to include the persons suffering from Parkinsons disease (PD) in the research process that involved the influence of the personality traits such as extraversion and neuroticism on the health-related quality of life. As stipulated in Chapter 4.5 of the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, the people suffering from mental illness, intellectual disability, and cognitive impairment are entitled to participate in any research process (Nhmrc.gov.au, 2014). However, their inclusion in the research process as participants should be limited to the particular illness, disability, or impairment conditions from which they are suffering (Carlson, 2013). Unfortunately, the authors did not put the medical conditions into consideration while seeking the consent of the participants. The implication of such failure implies that the participants cannot disclose accurate information such as their current medication, the duration of the condition, the medical history, marital status, and age as required by the research team. Consequently, this leads to errors in the study data obtained through administering questionnaires and interviews. In addition, in cases where the condition is incidental or temporary, there is the risk of involving the participants in the research process at the time the condition occurs. The implication of such a scenario is that there is a possibility of variation or loss of consent. (2). The ethical issue of distinctive vulnerability of the participants may have been addressed to the satisfaction of a Human Research Ethics Committee by taking appropriate care to ensure that any burden or risk incurred in the research process is justified through adequate beneficence. Secondly, the researchers should have considered the respect of the participant by seeking their consent before the commencement of the research process. Alternatively, the consent would have been sought from the relatives in a case where the participant does not have the capacity to consent. In addition, in a case where the illness, disability, or impairment is episodic or temporary, the researchers should have attempted to seek the consent of the participants at the instant when the condition cannot interfere with the capacity of the participants to give their consent (Bosek, Savage, 2007). While seeking the consent, the participants should be engaged in a discussion about the variability or loss of t he consent. Further, a party with the capacity of understanding the procedures, risks, and merits should witness the consent of participation (Weisstub Arboleda-Flrez, 1997). Consequently, the witness should be independent of the team undertaking the research and where appropriate, the witness should have an intricate knowledge of the participant, especially concerning his/her illness, disability, or impairment. The other way that the researchers would have met that the requirements of the Human Research Ethics Committee are by considering the nature of the illness, disability, or impairment, the current treatment or medication, the distress and discomfort of the participants, and the complexity of the study. References Bosek, M. S. D., Savage, T. A. (2007).The ethical component of nursing education: Carlson, L. (2013). Research ethics and intellectual disability: broadening the debates. Chapter 4.5: People with a cognitive impairment, an intellectual disability, Weisstub, D. N., Arboleda-Flrez, J. (1997). Whitworth, S. R., Loftus, A. M., Skinner, T. C.